Chapter 1: Biology and Behavior

• The Scientists:
  • Franz Gall: prenology
  • Pierre Flourens: first to study functions of brain sections (using ablation and pigeons)
  • William James: the father of functionalism and American psychology
  • John Dewey: reflex arc and adaptation to environment
  • Paul Broca: use physiology to examine behaviors of people with brain damage
  • Hermann von Helmholtz: measures speed of nerve impulse
  • Sir Charles Sherrington: first inferred existence of synapses
• Reflex arc: Sensory neurons —> interneurons —> motor neurons (no brain input)
• Peripheral Nervous System Breakdown:
  • Somatic NS: manages voluntary movements
  • Autonomic NS: includes involuntary things. two subdivisions: parasympathetic and sympathetic
    • Parasympathetic: rest and digest. conserves energy. pupils constrict, saliva flow stimulated, slows heartbeat, bronchi constricts, GI tract works, bladder contracts
    • Sympathetic: fight or flight. activated by stress. pupils dilate, salivation inhibited, heartbeat quickens, bronchi relax, GI tract stops, bladder contraction is inhibited, adrenaline and noradrenaline are secreted
• Major Divisions and Principal Structures of the Brain:
  • Forebrain
    • Cerebral cortex: complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
    • Basal ganglia: movement
    • Limbic system: emotion and memory
    • Thalamus: sensory relay station
    • Hypothalamus: hunger and thirst; emotion
  • Midbrain
    • Inferior and superior colliculi: sensorimotor reflexes
  • Hindbrain
    • Pons: contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
    • Medulla oblongata: vital functions
    • Cerebellum: refined motor movements
    • Reticular formation: arousal and alertness
• Different brain imaging techniques
  • EEG: detects broad patterns of electrical activity
  • CT: multiple X-rays are taken and put together to get cross-sectional slice images of the tissue
  • PET: uses a radioactive sugar to track its dispersion and uptake within tissues (usually used for cancer)
  • MRI: uses a magnetic field to map hydrogen dense regions of the body
  • fMRI: same as MRI, but measures changes associated with blood flow
• Limbic System
  • Septal nuclei: one of many pleasure centers found in the brain
  • Amygdala: role in defensive and aggressive behaviors (fear and rage)
  • Hippocampus: plays a role in consolidation info to form long-term memories
• Dominant vs nondominant hemisphere
  • dominant hemisphere: language, logic, math skills
  • nondominant: intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing
• Seven Neurotransmitters to Know
  1. Acetylcholine (CNS/PNS): transmits nerve impulses to muscles (PNS) and is linked to attention and arousal (CNS)
  2. Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (PNS): have to do with the fight or flight response
  3. Dopamine (CNS): important in movement, posture, and reward center (too low means Parkinson's and too high means schizophrenia)
  4. Serotonin (CNS): plays a role in mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming
  5. GABA (CNS): a brain "stabilizer"
  6. Endorphins (CNS): natural painkillers
  7. Glutamate: used in brain excitation
• Other endocrine organs:
  • adrenal medulla: releases epinephrine and norepinephrine
  • adrenal cortex: produces corticosteroids (cortisol specifically)
  • gonads: produces sex hormones
• neural tube eventually forms the CNS
• Primitive motor reflexes:
  • rooting reflex: automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek
  • Moro reflex: extends the arms and then slowly retracts them and cries in response to a sensation of falling
  • Babinski reflex: big toe is extended and other toes fan out in response to brushing the sole of the foot
  • grasping reflex: infant grabs anything put into their hand
• General developmental milestones:
  • gross and fine motor abilities progress head to toe and core to periphery
  • language gets increasingly complex
  • social skills shift from parent-oriented to self-oriented to other-oriented

Chapter 2: Sensation and Perception

• Sensation is the converstion of a sensory signal to an electrical signal in the NS. Perception is the processing of these signals to make sense of its significance.
• Absolute threshold: minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system
• Threshold of conscious perception: minimum of stimulus energy that will create a signal large enough in size and long enough in duration to be brought into awareness
• Signal Detection Theory: refers to the effects of nonsensory factors (experiences, motives, expectations) on the perception of stimuli
• Adaption: how the detection of a stimulus can change over time— it is one way our mind and body focuses on only relevant stimuli while ignoring irrelevant ones